|
ince Stanolind Oil introduced hydraulic
S fracturing in 1949, close
to 2.5 million fracture
treatments have been performed worldwide. Some believe that approximately 60% of all wells drilled today are fractured. Fracture stimulation not only increases the production rate, but it is credited with adding to reserves—9 billion bbl of oil and more than 700 Tscf of gas added since 1949 to US reserves alone—which otherwise would have been uneconomical to develop. In addition, through accelerating production, net present value of reserves has increased.
Fig. 2—On 17 March, 1949, Halliburton conducted the fi rst two commercial fracturing
Fracturing can be traced to
treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma, and Archer County, Texas.
the 1860s, when liquid (and later, solidifi ed) nitroglycerin (NG) was
of creating a fracture that would not
industry in a paper written by J.B.
used to stimulate shallow, hard
close completely because of acid
Clark of Stanolind Oil. A patent was
rock wells in Pennsylvania, New
etching. This would leave a fl ow
issued in 1949, with an exclusive
York, Kentucky, and West Virginia.
channel to the well and enhance
license granted to the Halliburton Oil
Although extremely hazardous,
productivity. The phenomenon
Well Cementing Company (Howco)
and often used illegally, NG was
was confi rmed in the fi eld, not
to pump the new Hydrafrac process.
spectacularly successful for oil well
only with acid treatments, but also
Howco performed the fi rst two
"shooting." The object of shooting a
during water injection and squeeze-
commercial fracturing treatments—
well was to break up, or rubblize,
one, costing USD 900, in Stephens
the oil-bearing formation to increase
But it was not until Floyd Farris
County, Oklahoma, and the other,
both initial fl ow and ultimate
of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation
costing USD 1,000, in Archer
recovery of oil. This same fracturing
(Amoco) performed an in-depth
County, Texas—on March 17, 1949,
principle was soon applied with equal
study to establish a relationship
using lease crude oil or a blend of
effectiveness to water and gas wells.
between observed well performance
crude and gasoline, and 100 to 150
In the 1930s, the idea of injecting
and treatment pressures that
lbm of sand (Fig. 2). In the fi rst
a nonexplosive fl uid (acid) into the
"formation breakdown" during
year, 332 wells were treated, with
ground to stimulate a well began
acidizing, water injection, and
an average production increase of
to be tried. The "pressure parting"
squeeze cementing became better
75%. Applications of the fracturing
phenomenon was recognized in
understood. From this work, Farris
process grew rapidly and increased
well-acidizing operations as a means
conceived the idea of hydraulically
the supply of oil in the United States
fracturing a formation to enhance
far beyond anything anticipated.
production from oil and gas wells.
Treatments reached more than 3,000
The fi rst experimental treatment
wells a month for stretches during
to "Hydrafrac" a well for stimulation
the mid-1950s. The fi rst one-half-
was performed in the Hugoton gas
million-pound fracturing job in the
fi eld in Grant County, Kansas, in
free world was performed in October
1947 by Stanolind Oil (Fig. 1). A
1968, by Pan American Petroleum
total of 1,000 gal of naphthenic-acid-
Corporation (later Amoco, now BP)
and-palm-oil- (napalm-) thickened
in Stephens County, Oklahoma. In
gasoline was injected, followed by
2008, more than 50,000 frac stages
Fig. 1—In 1947, Stanolind Oil conducted
a gel breaker, to stimulate a gas-
were completed worldwide at a
the fi rst experimental fracturing in the
producing limestone formation at
cost of anywhere between USD
Hugoton fi eld located in southwestern
2,400 ft. Deliverability of the well did
10,000 and USD 6 million. It is now
Kansas. The treatment utilized napalm
not change appreciably, but it was a
common to have from eight to as
(gelled gasoline) and sand from the
start. In 1948, the Hydrafrac process
many as 40 frac stages in a single
Arkansas River.
was introduced more widely to the
well. Some estimate that hydraulic
essential parallel development meant fewer pounds of gelling agent were required to obtain a desired viscosity. As more and more fracturing treatments have involved high-temperature wells, gel stabilizers have been developed, the fi rst of which was the use of approximately 5% methanol. Later, chemical stabilizers were developed that could be used alone or with the methanol.
Improvements in crosslinkers
and gelling agents have resulted in systems that permit the fl uid to reach the bottom of the hole in high-temperature wells prior to crosslinking, thus minimizing the effects of high shear in the tubing.
Fig. 3—A 1955 frac pump manufacturing facility. These remotely controlled pumps were
Ultraclean gelling agents based on
powered by 1,475 hp surplus Allison aircraft engines used during World War II.
surfactant-association chemistry and encapsulated breaker systems that
fracturing has increased US
fi rst patent (US Patent 3058909)
activate when the fracture closes
recoverable reserves of oil by at least
on guar crosslinked by borate was
have been developed to minimize
30% and of gas by 90%.
issued to Loyd Kern with Arco
fracture-conductivity damage.
on October 16, 1962. One of the
Fluids and Proppants
legends of hydraulic fracturing, Tom
Perkins, was granted the fi rst patent
Soon after the fi rst few jobs, the
(US Patent 3163219) on December
The fi rst fracturing treatment
average fracture treatment consisted
29, 1964 on a borate gel breaker.
used screened river sand as a
of approximately 750 gal of fl uid and
Surfactants were added to minimize
proppant. Others that followed
400 lbm of sand. Today treatments
emulsions with the formation fl uid,
used construction sand sieved
average approximately 60,000 gal of
and potassium chloride was added
through a window screen. There
fl uid and 100,000 lbm of propping
to minimize the effect on clays and
have been a number of trends
agent, with the largest treatments
other water-sensitive formation
in sand size, from very large to
exceeding 1 million gal of fl uid and
constituents. Later, other clay-
small, but, from the beginning, a
5 million lbm of proppant.
stabilizing agents were developed
–20 +40 US-standard-mesh sand
that enhanced the potassium
has been the most popular, and
chloride, permitting the use of water
currently approximately 85% of the
in a greater number of formations.
sand used is this size. Numerous
The fi rst fracture treatments were
Other innovations, such as foams
propping agents have been evaluated
performed with a gelled crude. Later,
and the addition of alcohol, have also
throughout the years, including
gelled kerosene was used. By the
enhanced the use of water in more
plastic pellets, steel shot, Indian
latter part of 1952, a large portion of
formations. Aqueous fl uids such as
glass beads, aluminum pellets, high-
fracturing treatments were performed
acid, water, and brines are used now
strength glass beads, rounded nut
with refi ned and crude oils. These
as the base fl uid in approximately
shells, resin-coated sands, sintered
fl uids were inexpensive, permitting
96% of all fracturing treatments
bauxite, and fused zirconium.
greater volumes at lower cost. Their
employing a propping agent.
The concentration of sand
lower viscosities exhibited less
In the early 1970s, a major
(lbm/fl uid gal) remained low until the
friction than the original viscous
innovation in fracturing fl uids was
mid-1960s, when viscous fl uids such
gel. Thus, injection rates could be
the use of metal-based crosslinking
as crosslinked water-based gel and
obtained at lower treating pressures.
agents to enhance the viscosity
viscous refi ned oil were introduced.
To transport the sand, however,
of gelled water-based fracturing
Large-size propping agents were
higher rates were necessary to offset
fl uids for higher-temperature wells.
advocated then.
the fl uid's lower viscosity.
It is interesting to note that the
The trend then changed from
With the advent in 1953 of water
chemistry used to develop these
the monolayer or partial monolayer
as a fracturing fl uid, a number of
fl uids was "borrowed" from the
concept to pumping higher sand
gelling agents were developed. The
plastic explosives industry. An
concentrations. Since that time, the
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min. Surface treating pressures sometimes are less than 100 psi, yet others may approach 20,000 psi.
Conventional cement- and
acid-pumping equipment was used initially to execute fracturing treatments. One to three units equipped with one pressure pump delivering 75 to 125 hhp were
Courtesy Halliburton
Courtesy Schlumberger
adequate for the small volumes injected at the low rates. Amazingly,
Fig. 4—Early screw-type sand blender.
Fig. 5—Modern fl uid/proppant blender or
many of these treatments gave
proportioning unit.
phenomenal production increases. As treating volumes increased,
concentration has increased almost
stark contrast with some early
accompanied by a demand for greater
continuously, with a sharp increase
jobs, where only 10 to 15 hhp was
injection rates, special pumping and
in recent years. These high sand
employed. Some of the early pump
blending equipment was developed.
concentrations are due largely to
manufacturing facilities made
Development of equipment including
advances in pumping equipment and
remotely controlled pumps powered
intensifi ers, slinger, and special
improved fracturing fl uids. Now it
by surplus Allison aircraft engines
manifolds continues. Today, most
is not uncommon to use proppant
used during World War II
treatments require that service
concentrations averaging 5 to 8 lbm/
(Figs. 3, 6).
companies furnish several million
gal throughout the treatment, with a
Initial jobs were performed
dollars' worth of equipment.
low concentration at the start of the
at rates of 2 to 3 bbl/min. This
For the first few years, sand
job, increased to 20 lbm/gal toward
increased rapidly until the early
was added to the fracturing fl uid by
the end of the job.
1960s, when it rose at a slower rate,
pouring it into a tank of fracturing
settling in the 20 bbl/min range
fl uid over the suction. Later, with less-viscous fl uid, a ribbon or paddle
Pumping and
(even though there were times when the rate employed in the
type of batch blender was used.
Hugoton fi eld was more than 300
Shortly after this, a continuous proportioner blender utilizing
Hydraulic horsepower (hhp) per
bbl/min). Then in 1976, Othar Kiel
a screw to lift the sand into the
treatment has increased from an
started using high-rate "hesitation"
blending tub was developed (Fig. 4).
average of approximately 75 hhp
fractures to cause what he called
Blending equipment has become
to more than 1,500 hhp. There
"dendritic" fractures. Today, in the
very sophisticated to meet the need
are cases where, with as much as
unconventional shale-gas plays,
for proportioning a large number
15,000 hhp available, more than
Kiel's ideas are used where the
of dry and liquid additives, then
10,000 hhp was actually used, in
pump rates are more than 100 bbl/
uniformly blending them into the
base fl uid and adding the various
concentrations of sand or other
propping agents. Fig. 5 shows one
of these blending units.
To handle large propping-agent
volumes, special storage facilities were developed to facilitate their delivery at the right rate through the fl uid. Treatments in the past were conducted remotely but still without any shelter. Today, treatments have a very sophisticated control center to coordinate all the activities that occur simultaneously.
The fi rst treatments were designed
Fig. 6—Vintage 1950s remotely controlled frac pumper powered by surplus WWII
using complex charts, nomographs,
Allison aircraft engines.
JPT • DECEMBER 2010
(Perkins & Kern)
(Geertsma & de Klerk)
Approximately elliptical
shape of fracture
10000 11000 12000 13000
Fracture Penetration (m)
Courtesy NSI Technologie
Fig. 8—Modern fully gridded frac model showing fl uid and
Fig. 7—Early 2D fracture-geometry models.
proppant vectors.
and calculations to determine
and Zheltov (1955), Perkins and
include fully gridded fi nite-element
appropriate size, which generally
Kern (1961), and Geertsma and
programs that predict fracture
was close to 800 gal (or multiples
de Klerk (1969) on fl uid effi ciency
geometry and fl ow properties
thereof) of fl uid, with the sand at
and the shape of a fracture system
in three dimensions (Fig. 8).
concentrations of 0.5 to 0.75 lbm/
in two dimensions (Fig. 7). These
Today, programs are available to
gal. This largely hit-or-miss method
programs were a great improvement
obtain a temperature profi le of the
was employed until the mid-1960s,
but were limited in their ability to
treating fl uid during a fracturing
when programs were developed
predict fracture height.
treatment, which can assist in
for use on simple computers. The
As computer capabilities
designing the concentrations of
original programs were based on
have increased, frac-treatment-
the gel, gel-stabilizer, breaker, and
work developed by Khristianovic
design programs have evolved to
propping-agent during treatment
stages. Models have been developed
and non-Darcy fl ow using any
will continue to play a substantive
to simulate the way fl uids move
proppant available.
role in unlocking otherwise
through the fracture and the way the
unobtainable reserves. JPT
propping agent is distributed. From
Fracturing's Historic Success
these models, production increases
can be determined. Models can
Many fi elds would not exist today
Geerstma, J. and de Klerk, F. 1969.
also be used to historically match
without hydraulic fracturing. In the US,
A Rapid Method of Predicting
production following a fracturing
these include the Sprayberry trend in
Width and Extent of Hydraulically
treatment to determine which
west Texas; Pine Island fi eld, Louisiana;
Induced Fractures. J. Pet. Tech. 21
treatment achieved which actual
Anadarko basin; Morrow wells,
(12):1571–1581.
result. New capabilities are currently
northwestern Oklahoma; the entire San
van Poollen, H.K., Tinsley, J.M.,
being developed that will include the
Juan basin, New Mexico; the Denver
and Saunders, C.D. 1958.
interaction of the induced fracture
Julesburg basin, Colorado; the east
Hydraulic Fracturing—Fracture
with natural fractures.
Texas and north Louisiana trend,
Flow Capacity vs. Well Productivity.
One of the hydraulic fracturing
Cotton Valley; the tight gas sands of
Trans., AIME 213: 91–95. SPE-890-G.
legends, H.K. van Poollen, performed
south Texas and western Colorado; the
Hubbard and Willis (1956).
work on an electrolytic model
overthrust belt of western Wyoming;
Khristianovic, S.A. and Zheltov, Y.P.
to determine the effect fracture
and many producing areas in the
1955. Formation of Vertical
lengths and fl ow capacity would
northeastern US.
Fractures by Means of Highly
have on the production increase
As the global balance of
Viscous Liquid. Paper 6132 presented
obtained from wells with different
supply and demand forces the
at the 4th World Petroleum Congress,
drainage radii. Several others
hydrocarbon industry toward more
Rome, 6–15 June.
developed mathematical models for
unconventional resources including
Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R. (1961).
similar projections. Today, there
US shales such as the Barnett,
Widths of Hydraulic Fractures.
are models that predict production
Haynesville, Bossier, and Marcellus
J. Pet. Tech., 13 (9): 937–949. SPE-
from fractures with multiphase
gas plays, hydraulic fracturing
89-PA. DOI: 10.2118/89-PA.
SPE Hydraulic Fracturing
Technology Conference
n
JPT • DECEMBER 2010
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With the NaturaLine process, Multi-Chem works with operators
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Copyright 2010. All rights reserved.
Robin Beckwith, JPT/JPT Online Staff Writer
While precise statistics on the hydraulic fracturing industry are not kept, there is little doubt its use has
grown precipitously over the past decade. Despite low gas prices, North American fracturing activity is at
an all-time high, with competition between fracturing companies fi erce, margins slim, and volumes huge.
With an estimated 4 million hhp of equipment being built in the US, there are waiting lists for services
and supplies, and delays of up to 9 months are common. China and India are investigating the potential
of unconventional-gas resources that demand the use of hydraulic fracturing to produce at commercial
fl ow rates, and also are stepping up investment in North American and Australian shale acreage. European
countries like Hungary, Poland, Germany, and France—keen on easing dependence on Russian energy—are
also looking to exploit their tight resources.
JPT • DECEMBER 2010
Fig. 1—Estimated size of the global fracturing market since 1999.
Fig. 2—Equipped with 8,250 hhp and 15,000 psi-capable pumps
Courtesy: Michael Economides, Energy Tribune.
and manifolds, Halliburton's Stim Star Angola delivers a wide range of stimulation services offshore West Africa. Photo courtesy: Halliburton.
But it is not all about shale. With
phenomenal increase in US proved
remains less urgent, as conventional
2007 estimated service-company
reserves of natural gas—from a 20-
resources remain far from depleted.
hydraulic fracturing revenues
year low in 1994 of 162.42 Tcf to its
Indeed, the top three countries in
representing a global market of
2009 estimated 244.66 Tcf—is the
terms of estimated proved natural-
USD 13 billion (Fig. 1), up from
direct result of advances in hydraulic
gas reserves—Russia, Iran, and
approximately USD 2.8 billion in
fracturing and horizontal drilling.
Qatar—held a combined total 14.5
1999, the technique is now more
The scramble for this resource,
times that in the US, at 3,563.55 Tcf
than ever a vital practice enabling
however, giving rise to what an IHS
year-end 2009, 57% of the world's
continued economic exploitation
CERA report calls the "shale gale,"
2009 total estimated proved reserves
of hydrocarbons throughout the
is the result in North America to
of 6,261.29 Tcf. So, while hydraulic
world—from high-permeability oil
avert what was predicted earlier
fracturing and natural gas—and to
fi elds in Alaska, the North Sea, and
in the century to be the need to
a certain extent oil—extraction have
Russia, to unconsolidated formations
import vast quantities of natural
been linked in the recent focus on
in the Gulf of Mexico, Santos Basin,
gas in the form of liquefi ed natural
unconventional shale resources
and offshore West Africa (Fig. 2), to
gas (LNG) from farfl ung locations.
within the US, the long-term future
unconventional resources such as
Although shale and CBM are also
lies well outside that country.
shale and coalbed methane (CBM)
widely prevalent outside the US, the
Currently within North America,
developments (Fig. 3).
need in most countries—with the
10 or more fracture-treatment
possible exception of the European
stages are performed to stimulate
What Is Driving the Rise
Economic Union—to turn to them,
production along a horizontal
in Hydraulic Fracturing?
It is not surprising to fi nd that
North America is home to an
estimated 85% of the total number of
hydraulic fracturing spreads (Fig. 4)
(according to Michael Economides,
a spread is the equivalent of four
fracturing units, a blender, and
ancillary equipment)—including land
(Fig. 5) and offshore equipment.
This stems from its mature,
reliable infrastructure, fueled by
the dependence of a population
Fig. 3—Estimate of approximate breakdown of fracture treatments by well type.
long used to creating demand. The
Courtesy: Michael Economides, Energy Tribune.
the US has been fast—propelled in part by regulatory requirements in most areas throughout North America to reveal fracturing and production-performance data within 6 months following execution, which competitors can then plunder for insight. The US also benefi ted from a tax incentive created in the 1980s, which, along with high gas prices, jump-started US tight gas exploitation. By 1992, when the incentive ended, the resulting infrastructure, critical mass, and expertise were in place to continue economically without incentives.
Fig. 4—Estimated global distribution of fracturing equipment, including land fracturing
Driven by increasing demand
spreads and offshore vessels.
for power generation, countries like China and India are eager to cost-effectively develop their own
borehole, while typically outside
companies must charge higher
resources, as well as participate
North America, the number of
prices to remain economically
in the boom that has struck US
fracture-treatment stages per well
viable, which in turn makes it
shale. In August, both nations
is rarely more than two or three.
highly unattractive for operators to
signed agreements with the US
Low natural-gas prices and lack of
permit learning, through practice
State Department allowing the US
infrastructure are two key drivers
and analysis, about the formation
Geological Survey to evaluate data
for this phenomenon. Outside
and about how to run the fl eet
on potential shale plays within
North America, service companies
and crew. However, a practical
those countries to determine if the
have yet to establish—or benefi t
way to combat this, according to
formations possess recoverable gas.
from—suffi cient infrastructure or
BP Exploration senior petroleum
They are also grabbing up
gain enough experience to deliver
engineer and adviser Martin
resources within the US. For
consistent results.
Rylance, is to deeply focus on the
example, India's largest company,
Costs that service companies
operational quality assurance/quality
Reliance Industries, led by
must deal with per well tend to be
control and execution on the pilot
billionaire Mukesh Ambani, has
three to four times higher outside
fracture treatments, and simply
purchased shares in US shales worth
North America due to such factors
overdesign these treatments with
USD 3.4 billion so far this year.
as fragile distribution channels or
more length and conductivity than
Ambani appears to be pursuing a
poorly performing equipment and
strictly necessary. Optimization of
learn-as-you-earn strategy. Evidence
personnel. The result is that service
the fracture treatments can be an
for this can be found in the nature of
evolving story as more treatments
the joint venture into which Reliance
are performed. The absolute key,
entered with Carrigo Oil & Gas on
said Rylance, is to fi rst establish
Marcellus Shale acreage in central
effective, competent, and successful
and northeast Pennsylvania in
fracturing and economical results.
early August. Reliance holds a 60%
The development and
interest and Carrigo is the operator,
application of hydraulic fracturing
but Reliance has the option to act
technology in the US has been
as operator in certain regions in the
driven by independents, with a
coming years. Ambani expects to
low cost base and the critical mass
build on what his company learns
necessary to learn and respond
about techniques like fracturing
quickly to new developments in
while profi ting as approximately
modeling, planning, fl uids, and
1,000 wells are drilled over the
proppants technology. With plays
next 10 years within a net resource
Fig. 5—Hydraulic fracturing treatment,
containing dozens of operators, each
potential of about 3.4 Tcfe (2.0 Tcfe
Woodford Shale, Canadian County,
seeking technical and economic
Oklahoma, for which Halliburton provided
advantage over the other, the pace
Smaller countries, like France
of technological development in
and Norway, are pursuing similar
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in late 2008 when it fi rst acquired
use of 30/50 and 40/70 sand and
acreage from Chesapeake, and
resin-coated sand, 40/80 ceramics,
aims to have shale production of
and 100-mesh sands of various
50,000 BOEPD from these assets
gradations is common.
by 2012. The company intends to
It is interesting to note, however,
build infrastructure and confi dence
that the use of proppants 16/20 or
through its Chesapeake joint
larger in fractures performed in West
venture to become an operator of
Siberia, for example, has increased
from 43% of the jobs in 2003 to more
Another strategy is to invite
than 90% of the jobs today—indicative
experienced foreign companies
of trends elsewhere that buck those
to share in exploiting home-front
occurring in North America.
shales. For example, China's largest
North America remains
listed gas producer, Petrochina, and
the dominant manufacturer
Royal Dutch Shell have partnered
of proppant (Fig. 7). The fi rst
to develop shale-gas resources
non-US plant designed to produce
in China's Sichuan province.
fracture sand meeting API RP 56
PetroChina, however, is hedging its
recommendations was built in
bets: It also has planned USD 60
1985 by Colorado Silica Sand near
billion in overseas investments to
Chelford, England. A select few
boost its oil and gas output, following
small natural-sand and resin coating
the example of other companies
operations followed in countries
like China Petroleum & Chemical
such as England, Denmark, Poland,
Corporation and CNOOC.
and Saudi Arabia. But, according to Olmen, the real development outside
Fig. 6—Proppant being moved into
Keeping the Fracture
North America has been in the
the hopper for feeding into blender
production of high-strength ceramics
trucks from which the mixture will be
and sintered bauxite. Brazil, Russia,
pumped downhole during hydraulic
With the rapid rise in hydraulic
and China, for example, have
fracturing. Location: Haynesville well
fracturing over the past decade,
established substantial synthetic-
in northern Louisiana. Photo courtesy:
the number of proppant suppliers
proppant manufacturing capacities,
Carbo Ceramics.
worldwide has increased from
all of which export to North America.
a handful to more than 30 sand
strategies—linked to hydraulic
producers, nine resin coaters, and at
The Vital Need for Fluids
fracturing as an enabling technology.
least 10 ceramic manufacturers.
Total, for example, announced its
According to a 2009 global
Vast shales are the deposits of oceans
fi rst investment in a coal-seam
proppant market study by D.
that existed in the Paleozoic and
gas project, paying around USD
Anschutz and B. Olmen, published
Mesozoic eras and as such present
750 million for a 20% stake in an
by PropTester and Kelrik in early
resources whose steady exploitation
Australian joint venture. The project
2010, proppant consumption was
will last many decades—even
will convert coal-seam gas from
a low-growth market through the
centuries. Plenty of these shales
fi elds in Queensland into LNG at
1990s, but rose from an estimated
were in fact the known source rocks
a plant on the country's east coast,
3 billion pounds in 1999 to total
for many already widely developed
from where it will be sold to energy-
consumption of nearly 20 billion
oil and gas formations. Now these
hungry Asian markets. Total is also
pounds in 2009 (Fig. 6).
source rocks are themselves turning
buying a 15% stake in the Gladstone
Proppant grain size has become
out to be excellent reservoirs.
LNG project from Australia's Santos,
fi ner as the use of slickwater
However, outside North
and a 5% stake from Malaysia's
fracturing has increased, with
America, such resources represent
Petronas. The French group said
20/40 the dominant gradation
a far longer-term frontier, with most
it will also explore opportunities
throughout the 1990s and early
hydraulic fractures still performed
to cooperate over other Santos gas
2000s. However, according to
on conventional formations, which
assets in Australia.
Kelrik owner Olmen, "Slickwater
often respond best to complex cross-
Earlier this year, Statoil added
fracturing of unconventional-gas
linked fl uid technology. Because the
to its US Marcellus Shale position
resources represents nothing short
unconventional-gas formations now
by acquiring nearly 59,000 net acres
of a paradigm shift in its impact
primarily targeted in North America
from Chesapeake Energy. Statoil
on proppant volumes, types, and
require high-rate water fracturing
entered the Marcellus shale play
sizes." The result is that today the
and slickwater technology, Rylance
JPT • DECEMBER 2010
are hydraulically fractured. Driven by scarcity of water and the high cost of surfactant-gel frac-fl owback-water disposal, project operators sought means of rationalizing resources. On a project basis, it was found that 50% of the load water recovered could be recycled, resulting in a nearly equal reduction on trucking and disposal costs. Signifi cant savings could also be made in chemical-addititve costs.
Fig. 7—Fracturing sand being transported
Stephen Holditch, professor
into the Marcellus shale region. Photo
and head of the Harold Vance
courtesy: D&I LLC/Prop'N Rail, Sheffi eld,
Department of Petroleum
Engineering at Texas A&M University, stated, "In the future, the
voiced a concern that "We are
industry needs to look at developing
creating a whole generation of
polymer-free fl uids or fl uids with
fracturing personnel in North
polymers that degrade more
America who have never heard
completely at temperatures below
of and do not understand the
250°F." A key to accomplishing this,
complexities and intricacies of
he said, is the development of "better
cross-linked gel fracturing,
fracture-fl uid mathematical models
equipment operation, pumping,
to simulate fi ltrate invasion and
design, and execution."
cleanup in tight gas sands."
IPointOil President Hemanta
Mukherjee is passionate about
The Key to Fracture
the need for "green" fl uids. "Use
Success: Fracture Design
of hydraulic fracturing will only grow," he stated. "This means it
According to Simon Chipperfi eld,
will be much more widely used in
team leader Central Gas Team at
environmentally sensitive areas like
Santos, the key challenges facing
deep offshore and arctic tundra."
hydraulic fracturing remain
Green additives are being developed
understanding the interaction
and used. One of these is tetrakis-
between created fractures and
the reservoir. He stated that good
sulfate or THPS biocides, a class of
progress has been made in the
antimicrobial chemicals with low
development of processes like after-
overall toxicity and rapid breakdown
closure analysis to defi ne reservoir
in the environment, which won a US
properties and microseismic to
Environmental Protection Agency
defi ne fracture extent. Additional
award in 1997 and is used as a
independent sources of information
means of protecting the gelling agent
taken over the life of the well,
guar from degradation as well as
he said, are required to improve
combatting corrosion effects over the
understanding of, for example, the
life of the well.
performance of individual fracturing
Flowback water is a bigger
stages in wells where many
concern. A promising solution to
stimulation treatments are placed.
this is fracture-fl uid recycling. An
The University of Calgary's
example, delineated by D.V.S. Gupta
Antonin Settari concurred. "The
and B.T. Hlideck of BJ Services
industry still does not completely
(paper SPE 119478), involved
understand the geomechanical
shallow-gas fracturing in western
effects of unconventional well
Canada, where typically several
fracturing," he said. Although
thousand wells are drilled and
each shale play presents its own
completed every year, all of which
set of challenges that render it
economically necessary nowadays
Hydraulic Fracturing Seeps
for operators to learn from empirical experience, Settari estimates that
into Public Awareness
research being conducted today by various consortia—including the one the University of Calgary has launched, along with Anadarko, BP,
The US Environmental Protection Agency is currently
Shell, Statoil, and Eni—will trickle
designing a study examining the possible relationship
down into predictive software within
between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water
the next 3 to 5 years.
As Rylance stated, "Hydraulic
fracturing is a very forgiving
technology," with the ability to achieve good results in a commodity-like manner within North America,
The US House of Representatives Committee on
where its use is, by and large,
Energy and Commerce continues to examine
based on models developed 25 to
the potential environmental impact of hydraulic
35 years ago. "However, if you do
it right, the results can be game-
changing, with skilled and effective
fracture deployment often being the
difference between an economic and
uneconomic development overseas."
To achieve better outcomes,
not only is the development of
In mid-September, Wyoming became the fi rst state in
predictive models necessary, but
the US to require public disclosure of all chemicals
so is data sharing and integration.
used in fracturing. The actual formula for the fl uid can
"Companies do not easily share,"
remain a commercial secret, but the ingredients must
Rylance continued. "Service
be revealed to the state.
companies' ability to design and execute optimum fracture treatments is hampered because they can't see
While they investigate the possible link between
the whole picture. There are four
hydraulic fracturing and aquifer contamination, New
things service companies need to
York state regulators have placed a moratorium on
design optimum fractures: reservoir
new gas drilling, and the state Senate voted in August
permeabilities, the in-situ stress
to prohibit new permits until 15 May, 2011.
distribution, a sound geologic model, and fl uid-loss characteristics in naturally fractured formations." An
Four documentary fi lms on hydraulic fracturing—two
aid in this area would be Halliburton's
pro and two con—have emerged this year: Gasland
recently released DecisionSpace
Desktop software, one of whose
haynesvillemovie.com), Split Estate (www.splitestate.
purposes is to further better integration
com), and Gas Odyssey (www.gasodyssey.com).
of real-time, fracturing-related data from the fi eld with the shared Earth model built by the asset team.
Stories on fracturing have appeared in numerous mainstream venues, including magazines (www.
In remarks to the 2010 World Energy
Congress, Daniel Yergin, chairman
of the consultancy IHS CERA,
Popular Science (www.popsci.com/technology/
pointed to shale-gas development as
the single most signifi cant energy
smaller news publications and blogs.
innovation so far this century. Without hydraulic fracturing, coupled with advances in horizontal
JPT • DECEMBER 2010
drilling, this phenomenon would
governmental response, studies,
The Future
be physically impossible. It is less
and media reaction to a suggested
While the human population
cumbersome and more economically
link between hydraulic fracturing
growth rate is declining, our
and politically advantageous for
and groundwater contamination.
presence on this planet, currently
countries to rely on supplies of
According to NSI Technologies
estimated at 6.88 billion, continues
natural gas that are close to the
President Michael Smith most
to climb as does our reliance on
market in which they will be used—a
of this concern is unfounded as
consistent supplies of oil and gas.
key advantage, along with methane's
fracturing is typically conducted
Yergin predicts that world energy
much-touted "clean-burning"
thousands of feet below aquifers
demand will increase 32–40%
reputation, that makes shale so
and the chemicals in the fl uids are
over the next 20 years. "Much
attractive. Indeed, Holditch stated
mostly fairly benign. The chances
of the infrastructure that will
that "for the next few decades, the
of creating a fl ow path for natural
be needed in 2030 to meet the
best hope for increasing the clean
gas to the surface are diminishingly
energy needs of a growing world
energy supply is to promote the use
small. Well-construction problems
economy is still to be built," he
of natural gas."
and gas seepage from poor well
said. Building that infrastructure
However, with shale exploitation
completions close to the surface
in and of itself will aid economic
nudging ever closer to areas of
would be more likely culprits. He
growth. And hydraulic fracturing
human habitation and aquifers
did note, though, that if the well
will continue to be used throughout
within the US, public awareness
penetrates a large natural fault there
the world in a wide range of
of the oil and gas industry's
is some risk, when pumping huge-
formations including shale as a
presence and practices is growing,
volume water fractures, that water
technology that plays a vital role in
accompanied at times by fears and
can be injected at high pressure
releasing the hydrocarbons human
questions. The rest of the world
directly into the fault, causing a
societies rely upon for peaceful
stands to learn from US public and
minor earthquake.
economic continuance. JPT
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Source: http://my-pages.net/alerteschiste/fichiers/10Hydraulic.pdf
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